Recovery and flow in cave mining: current knowledge gaps and the role of technology in the future

Authors: Campbell, AD

Open access courtesy of:

DOI https://doi.org/10.36487/ACG_repo/2035_0.04

Cite As:
Campbell, AD 2020, 'Recovery and flow in cave mining: current knowledge gaps and the role of technology in the future', in J Wesseloo (ed.), UMT 2020: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Underground Mining Technology, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 77-104, https://doi.org/10.36487/ACG_repo/2035_0.04

Download citation as:   ris   bibtex   endnote   text   Zotero


Abstract:
Gravity flow of granular material in a caving mine is complex. Ore recovery and cave flow is impacted by wide particle size distributions, particle interlocking, an evolving cave geometry, and the mine draw strategy. However, these factors are rarely quantified in forecasts of cave performance at key stages in the planning process. Reliable tools for simulating cave flow and the technology to measure cave flow and footprint deformation have only emerged in the last 10 years. This includes technology such as electronic cave markers and tracker systems, 3D laser scanning for tunnel deformation and fragmentation measurement as well as coupled cave flow-deformation numerical simulations. This paper provides an overview of how the current state of cave flow knowledge has evolved and the knowledge gaps that still exist. The impact of these knowledge gaps is described in context with mine design and current design guidelines. A series of experiments to address these knowledge gaps have been conceptualised for future trials in existing and future caving mines. A methodology including instrumentation, monitoring requirements and operational practices is outlined for each experiment.

Keywords: block caving, sublevel caving, granular flow, fragmentation

References:
Airey, LD 1965, ‘The introduction of mechanised mining methods at Mufulira Copper Mines Ltd.’, Proceedings of the 8th Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical Conference, preprint 91, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 16–26.
Arancibia, E, Carrasco, F, Fuentes, S & Guarda, J 2008, ‘Design of extraction layout for the Chuquicamata underground project’, in H Schunnesson & E Nordlund (eds), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2008), Luleå University of Technology Press, Luleå, pp. 3‒14.
Beck, DA, Sharrock, G & Capes, G 2011, ‘A coupled DFE-Newtonian Cellular Automata scheme for simulation of cave initiation, propagation and induced seismicity’, Proceedings of the 45th US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium, American Rock Mechanics Association, Alexandria.
Beck, DA, Hudson, R, Wilson, AD, Duplancic, P & Lilley, CR 2016, ‘An investigation of factors affecting the long-term reliability of extraction level pillars in deep block and panel caves’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne.
Bender, J, Müller, M, Otaduy, MA, Teschner, M & Macklin, M 2014, ‘A survey on position based simulation methods in computer graphics’, Computer Graphics Forum, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 228–251.
Benter, A 2014, Characterising the Internal Composition of Rock Piles Using Ground Penetrating Radar, PhD thesis, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst.
Brunton, ID 2009, The Impact of Blasting on Sublevel Caving Flow Behaviour and Recovery, PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Brunton, ID, Lett, JL, Sharrock, GB, Thornhill, T & Mobilio, B 2016a, ‘Full scale flow marker experiments and the Ridgeway Deeps and Cadia East cave operations’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne.
Brunton, I, Lett, J L & Thornhill, T, 2016b, ‘Fragmentation prediction and assessment at the Ridgeway Deeps and Cadia East cave operations’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 151–160.
Brown, ET 2007, Block Caving Geomechanics, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Bull, G & Page, CH 2000, ‘Sublevel caving–today’s dependable low-cost ‘ore factory’’, in G Chitombo (ed.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2000), Instituto de Ingenieros de Chile, Santiago, pp. 537–556.
Burgio, N & Diering, T 2008, ‘Simulating irregular cave propagation using PCBC’, in H Schunnesson & E Nordlund (eds), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining 2008, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, pp. 1033–1042.
Campbell, AD 2018a, 'Full-scale experiments to measure the effect of crosscut height on recovery in sublevel cave mines', in Y Potvin & J Jakubec (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 443–456.
Campbell, AD 2018b, 'Effects of blast ring burden and explosive density on fragmentation and ore recovery in sublevel cave mines', in Y Potvin & J Jakubec (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 457–470.
Campbell, AD 2019, Full-scale Experiments and Numerical Modelling to Improve Ore Recovery in Sublevel Cave Mines, PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Campbell, AD & Power, GR 2016, ‘Increasing net present value by a third at an operating sublevel cave mine using draw strategy optimisation’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 167–174.
Campbell, AD & Power, GR 2017, ‘Improving calibration of flow models against SLC marker trials by linking blasting effects to particle mobility’, Proceedings of the 13th AusIMM Underground Operators’ Conference, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 11–22.
Campbell, AD & Thurley, MJ 2017, ‘Application of laser scanning to measure fragmentation in underground mines’, Transactions of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy, Section A: Mining Technology, vol. 126, iss. 4, pp. 240–247.
Caspar, J 1960, Model Work on Movement in Conventional SLC at Kiruna, pp. 53–103.
Castro, RL 2006, Study of the Mechanisms of Gravity Flow for Block Caving, PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Castro, R, Hekmat, A, Fuentes, M, Armijo, F & Rodriguez, F 2016, ‘FlowSim – a versatile flow simulation tool to quantify extraction and design alternatives for block caving,’ Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 645–652.
Castro, R, Trueman, R & Halim, A 2007, ‘A study of isolated draw zones in block caving mines by means of a large 3D physical model’, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 860–870.
Cox, J 1969, ‘Sublevel caving at Mulfria copper mines’, Mining Magazine, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 31–36.
Dassault Systèmes 2020, GEOVIA PCBC, computer software, Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, https://www.3ds.com/products-services/geovia/products/pcbc/
DeGagne, DO & McKinnon, SD 2005, ‘The influence of blasting fragmentation on ore recovery in sublevel cave mines’, Proceeding of The 40th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, American Rock Mechanics Association, Alexandria.
deWolfe, C & Ross, I 2016, ‘Super caves – benefits, considerations and risks’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 51–58.
Flores, G & Karsulovic, A 2000, Geotechnical Guidelines for a Transition From Open Cut to Underground Mining: Benchmarking Report, report to the International Caving Study II, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, Brisbane.
Free, GD 1970, Mathematical and Model Studies of the Flow of Material in the Sub-level Caving Mining Method, Master of Engineering Science thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Gantumur, J, Godard, R, Prince, F & Pascoe, C 2016, ‘Development and evaluation processes of cave production schedules for the Resolution copper project’, Proceedings Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 59–64.
Garces, D, Viera, E, Castro, R & Melendez, M 2016, ‘Gravity flow full-scale tests at Esmerelda Mine’s block-2, El Teniente’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 349–358.
Gardner, GC 1966, ‘The region of flow when discharging granulai materials from bin-hopper systems’, Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 21, pp. 261–273.
Gustafsson, P 1998, Waste Rock Content Variations During Gravity Flow in Sublevel Caving: Analysis of Full-scale Experiments and Numerical Simulations, PhD thesis, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå.
Halim, A 2006, Study of the Influence of Interactive Draw upon Drawpoint Spacing in Block and Sublevel Caving Mines, PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Hancock, W 2013, Gravity Flow of Rock in Caving Mines: Numerical Modelling of Isolated, Interactive and Non-ideal Draw, PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Hebert, Y & Sharrock, G 2018, 'Three-dimensional simulation of cave initiation, propagation and surface subsidence using a coupled finite difference–cellular automata solution', in Y Potvin & J Jakubec (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 151–166.
Heslop, G & Laubscher, D 1981, ‘Draw control in caving operations on southern African chrysotile asbestos mines’, in DR Stewart (ed.), Design and Operation of Caving and Sublevel Stoping Mines, Society of Mining Engineers, New York, pp. 715–728.
Hocking, R, Balog, G, Ormerod, T & Pearce, H 2018, ‘Early cave management at the Carrapateena sublevel cave’, in Y Potvin & J Jakubec (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 421–432.
Hollins, B & Tucker, J 2004, ‘Draw point analysis using a marker trial at the Perseverance Nickel Mine, Leinster, Western Australia’, in A Karzulovic & MA Alafaro (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2004), Instituto de Ingenieros de Chile, Santiago, pp. 498–502.
Janelid, I 1972, ‘Study of the gravity flow process in sublevel caving’, Proceedings of the International Sublevel Caving Symposium, Atlas Copco, London, pp. 1–23.
Janelid, I & Kvapil, R 1966, ‘Sublevel caving’, International Journal Rock Mechanics and Mining Science, vol. 3, pp. 129–153.
Jones, E & Beck, D 2017, ‘The use of 3D laser scanning for deformation monitoring in underground mines’, Proceedings of the 13th AusIMM Underground Operators’ Conference, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 267–270.
Just, GD 1981, ‘The significance of material flow in mine design and production’, in DR Stewart (ed.), Design and Operation of Caving and Sublevel Stoping Mines, Society of Mining Engineers, New York, pp. 715–728.
Kloss, C, Hager, A, Amberger, S & Pirker S 2012, ‘Models, algorithms and validation for opensource DEM and CFD-DEM’, Progress in Computational Fluid Dynamics, An International Journal, vol. 12, no. 2/3, pp. 140–152.
Kvapil, R 1965, ‘Gravity flow of granular materials in hoppers and bins-Part 2 Coarse material’, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 277–292.
Kvapil, R 1992, ‘Sublevel caving’, SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration, Englewood, pp. 1789–1814.
Laubscher, DH 1994, ‘Cave mining – the state of the art’, The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 94, iss. 10, pp. 279–293.
Laubscher, DH 2000, A Practical Manual on Block Caving, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre and Itasca Consulting Group Inc., Brisbane.
Laubscher, DH, Guest, A & Jakubec, J 2017, Guidelines on Caving Mining Methods - The Underlying Concepts, W.H. Bryan Mining & Geology Research Centre, Brisbane.
Lorig, LJ & Cundall, PA 2000, A Rapid Gravity Flow Simulator, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre and Itasca Consulting Group Inc., Brisbane.
Marano, G 1980, ‘The interaction between adjoining draw points in free flowing materials and its application to mining’, Chamber of Mines Journal, Zimbabwe, May, pp. 25–32.
Macklin, M, Müller, M & Chentanez, N 2016, ‘XPBD: position-based simulation of compliant constrained dynamics’, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Motion in Games, Association for Computing Machinery, New York.
Macklin, M, Müller, M, Nattapong, C & Tae-Yong, K 2014, ‘Unified particle physics for real-time applications’, ACM Transactions on Graphics, vol. 33, no. 4.
McCormick, R 1968, ‘How wide does a drawpoint draw?’, Engineering and Mining Journal, June, pp. 106–116.
McDonald, A 2004, Sub-level Cave Draw Marker Study Results - Report 1, Perseverance Nickel Mine.
Minchinton, A & Dare-Bryan, P 2005, ‘The application of computer modelling for blasting and flow in sublevel caving operations’, Proceedings of the Ninth Underground Operators' Conference, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 65–74.
Müller, M 2006, ‘Position based dynamics’, in C Mendoza & I Navazo (eds), Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop in Virtual Reality Interactions and Physical Simulation "VRIPHYS", Eurographics Association, Geneve.
Panczakiewicz, T 1977, Optimization of the Sublevel Caving Mining Method Investigated by Physical Models, MSc thesis, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Peters, D 1984, ‘Physical modelling of the draw behaviour of broken rock in caving’, Quarterly of the Colorado School of Mines, vol. 79, no. 1.
Pierce, ME 2010, A Model for Gravity Flow of Fragmented Rock in Block Caving Mines, PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Pierce, ME & Hakan, S 2004, ‘PFC3D modelling of flow behaviour in sublevel caving’, in A Karzulovic & A Alfaro (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2004), Instituto de Ingenieros de Chile, Santiago, pp. 201–214.
Power, GR 2004, Modelling Granular Flow in Caving Mines: Large Scale Physical Modelling and Full Scale Experiments, PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Power G 2012, ‘Optimizing caving recovery using comparative draw planning strategies and PGCA flow modelling software’, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2012), Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Sudbury.
Power, G & Campbell, AD 2016, ‘Modelling of real-time marker data to improve operational recovery in sublevel caving mines’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Sudbury, pp. 105–110.
Quinteiro, CR, Larsson, L & Hustrulid, WA 2001, ‘Theory and practice of very large scale sublevel caving’, in WA Hustrulid & RL Bullocks (eds), Underground Mining Methods – Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies, Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration, Englewood, pp. 381–384.
Redaelli, L 1963, ‘Sub-level caving at Koskullskulle’, Mine and Quarry Engineering, June, pp. 261–264.
Richardson, MP 1981, ‘Area of draw influence and drawpoint spacing for block caving mines’, in DR Stewart (ed.), Design and Operation of Caving and Sublevel Stoping Mines, Society of Mining Engineers, New York, pp. 149–156.
Sandstrom, P 1972, ‘Application and optimisation of sublevel caving techniques’, Engineering and Mining Journal, June, pp. 112–125.
Sellden, H & Pierce, M 2004, ‘PFC3D modelling of flow behaviour in sublevel caving’, Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2004), Instituto de Ingenieros de Chile, Santiago, pp. 201–214.
Sharrock, G & Hashim, M 2009, ‘Disturbed gravity flow in block caving’, Proceedings of the 3rd US Rock Mechanics Symposium and 4th US-Canada Rock Mechanics Symposium, American Rock Mechanics Association, Alexandria.
Stazhevskii, SB 1996, ‘Features of flow of broken rock in extraction of ores with sublevel caving’, Journal of Mining Science, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 403–416.
Steffan, S & Kuiper, P 2012 ‘Maximising ore recovery and the implication for cave monitoring and management practices - application of the smart marker system in block and sub-level mines’, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2012), Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, Sudbury.
Stegman, C, van As, A & Peebles, E 2018, ‘Past learnings focus innovative solutions to future cave mining’, in Y Potvin & J Jakubec (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 37–42.
Van As, A & Van Hout, GJ 2008, ‘Implications of widely spaced drawpoints’, in H Schunnesson & E Nordlung (eds), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2008), Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, pp. 147–154.
Whiteman, D 2010, ‘The SMART Marker System — a new tool for measuring underground ore body flow in block and sub-level mines’, in Y Potvin (ed.), Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 603–621.
Whiteman, D, Talu, S, Wilson, M, Watt, G, Van As, A & Kuiper, P 2016, ‘Cave Tracker flow monitoring system installation at Argyle Diamond Mine’, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), pp. 479–488, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne.




© Copyright 2024, Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of Western Australia. All rights reserved.
View copyright/legal information
Please direct any queries or error reports to repository-acg@uwa.edu.au